Eastern Orthodoxy





Eastern Orthodox Christianity (or "Eastern Orthodoxy") refers primarily to
church traditions descending from the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium. The
church of Rome, the Roman Catholic Church, is heir to the "Western Orthodox"
tradition. The formal division of the Church into separate Eastern and
Western churches is regarded as having occurred in 1054 in what is known as
the Great Schism. Both churches claim to be the One Holy Catholic and
Apostolic Church, and reject the other's claim to this title. The Eastern
church also claims to be dogmaticly unchanged since the time of the
apostles; this is why it has adopted the term "Orthodox" to describe itself.

The "Eastern" churches with the largest number of adherents, according to
the primary and narrow sense of "Eastern Orthodox," are the Russian and the
Greek Orthodox. As English speakers in the West sometimes use the term,
however, "Eastern Orthodoxy" is meant to include the "Oriental Orthodox"
churches. These were established many centuries prior to the Great Schism
and in fundamental aspects are as dissimilar from the narrowly defined
"Eastern Orthodox" churches as they are from the Roman Catholic Church.
Oriental Orthodox churches include the (arguably) "monophysite" Coptic
Church. The "Nestorian" Assyrian also often is included among this group,
though it does not belong to the Oriental Orthodox Communion.

Eastern Orthodoxy traces continuous apostolic succession back to the five
major centers of Christianity in the early church: Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch,
Alexandria, and Constantinople.

The primary causes of their differences with Rome include the Filioque
clause, papal claims to complete authority over all Christians, and other
doctrinal and liturgic innovations of Rome. Catholics introduced other
dogmas later that Eastern Orthodoxy also considers heretical, among them
papal infallibility and the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.
Catholics consider the Eastern Orthodox to be schismatics; the Eastern
Orthodox consider Catholics to be both schismatics and heretics.

The various churches of the Eastern Orthodox Communion are not wholly
independent but exist in full communion with one another. The Oriental
Orthodox Churches are not members of this communion, nor are groups such as
the Old Believers or the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia.

History

From its founding the church spread quickly throughout most of the Roman
Empire, despite much offical opposition. Widespread, organized persecution
finally stopped in 311 when Emperor Constantine I so ordered it in the Edict
of Milan. From that time forward, the Byzantine emperor exerted various
degrees of influence in the church. Sometimes this was seen as positive, as
in the calling of the Ecumenical Councils to resolve disputes and establish
church dogma on which the entire church would agree. Sometimes this was seen
as negative, as when Patriarchs (usually of Constantinople) were deposed by
the emperor, or when the emperor sided with the iconoclasts in the eighth
and ninth centuries.

There were several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards. Some of
them led to the calling of Ecumenical councils to try to resolve them. The
Church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following
the Council of Chalcedon (451), owing to a dispute about the relation
between the divine and human natures of Christ. Eventually this led to each
group having its own Pope. Those that remained in communion with the other
patriarchs were called "Melkites" (the king's men, because Constantinople
was the city of the emperors), and are today known as the Greek Orthodox
Patriarchate of Alexandria, led by Pope Petros VII, while those who
disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon are today known as
the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, led by Pope Shenouda III.
There was a similar split in Syria. Those who disagreed with the Council of
Chalcedon are sometimes called "Oriental Orthodox" to distinguish them from
the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. The Oriental
Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as "monophysites" or
"non-Chalcedonians", although today the Coptic Orthodox Church denies that
it is monophysite and prefers the term "miaphysite", to denote the "joined"
nature of Christ.

An important symbol for the eastern Orthodoxy and its spread north to the
Slavic peoples was the construction in the 530s of Hagia Sophia, a most
impressive church building in Constantinople, under emperor Justinian I.

In the seventh century the areas covered by the churches of Alexandria,
Antioch and Jerusalem were conquered by Muslim Arabs, and the native
Christians were treated as second-class citizens. Westerners tend to think
of Christianity as dominant in society for a long period of history, but
this has definitely not been the case for Christians in three of the five
ancient churches, who have been in Muslim-dominated societies for 13
centuries. It was the Muslims who first opposed the Christian use of icons,
though many Christians swiftly came to the same conclusion. The use of icons
was defended and upheld at the Seventh Ecumenical Council. The end of that
council is still celebrated as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy" in Orthodox
churches today, and icons remain a central part of Orthodox faith and practice.

In the ninth and tenth centuries, Orthodoxy made great inroads into Eastern
Europe and Russia. This work was made possible by the work of Saints Cyril
and Methodius, who translated the Bible and many of the prayer books into
Slavonic. They found themselves competing with missionaries from the Roman
diocese in places like Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. After being driven out
of Czechoslovakia, they were later welcomed in Bulgaria, in part because
they prayed in the people's native language rather than in Latin, as the
Roman priests did. Today the Russian Orthodox Church, in spite of 70 years
of persecution under the atheistic government of the USSR, is the largest of
the Orthodox Churches.

In the 11th century the Great Schism took place between Rome and
Constantinople, which led to the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic
Church, to become distinct from the Churches of the East. There were
doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Pope
involved in the split, but they were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic
differences. The split was between the Greek East and the Latin West.

To further exacerbate matters, the Fourth Crusade had the Latin Church
directly involved in a military assault against the Byzantine Empire,
Constantinople, and the Orthodox Patriarchate thereof. The sacking of the
Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire is viewed with
some rancor to the present day.

In 1453, the Byzantine Empire finally fell. By this time Egypt was also
under Muslim control, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia; and so Moscow
became the new center of the church at that time.

Structure / Organization

Bishops, priests and deacons

Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the leaders
of the Church in each place came to be known as episkopi (overseers), which
bacame "bishop" in English. The other ordained roles are elder from the
Greek presbyter, (becoming "prester" and then "priest" in English) and
diakonis (deacon), which literally means "servant" (see also subdeacon). The
bishop of the most important city of a region (Metropolis) was sometimes
called a "Metropolitan", and smaller local churches looked to those in large
cities for leadership. The East (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and
Eastern-rite Catholic churches) has always allowed married priests and
deacons, provided the marriage takes place before their ordination. If
divorced or widowed, priests and deacons are not allowed to remarry unless
they also cease being priests or deacons. Bishops are always celibate.
Bishops, priests, and deacons have always been men. There was an office of
deaconess; these were women that assisted other women in the Christian
community. However, they did not receive ordination in the sense that
deacons do, nor did they exercise jurisdiction.

Church Jurisdictions

The different Orthodox churches can generally be said to be united in faith
and in liturgy, but not in polity. There is no single Pope or similar office
that corresponds to the Roman Catholic Pope, nor is there a standing synod
of bishops or patriarchs. In general, the church is organized along national
and regional lines in hierarchical fashion, with the "top" hierarchs or
patriarchs recognizing and remaining in communion with the other patriarchs.
From about the fourth century the most important churches were Rome,
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The bishops of Rome and
Alexandria had the title "Pope", while those of the other three cities were
called "Patriarchs". Today there are approximately 15 separate autocephalous
jurisdictions who remain in communion with Constantinople and each other;
these are the "canonical" orthodox churches. Churches which call themselves
Orthodox but are not in communion with these are termed "non-canonical"
orthodox churches.

Orthodox Christians believe that they have preserved apostolic succession
from the first Apostles. While Rome traces its papacy back to the Apostle
Peter, Alexandria, for example, traces its papacy back to Mark the
Evangelist, who founded the church in Alexandria in AD 40. (In Alexandria,
two primates call themselves "Pope" and claim to be the successor of the
apostle Mark: the Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria, also called the
"Pope of Africa", and the Coptic Pope. Those two lines of succession
separated from each other in a schism in AD 451. Roman Catholics also have a
high-ranking bishop called the "Patriarch of Alexandria" in that city, but
he does not claim the title of "Pope".)

Orthodoxy in North America

The Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the
18th century. Among the first was St. Herman of Alaska. Their work
eventually gave rise to the "Orthodox Church in America". The Russian
Orthodox Church was devastated by the Bolshevik Revolution and seventy years
of Communism. One side effect was the flood of refugees from Russia and
Eastern Europe to the United States. Among those who came were Orthodox lay
people, deacons, priests and bishops. Today there are many Orthodox churches
in the United States and Canada that are still bound to the Greek,
Antiochian, or other overseas jurisdiction; in some cases these different
overseas jurisdictions will have churches in the same U.S. city. However,
there are also many "panorthodox" activities and organizations, both formal
and informal, among Orthdox believers of all jurisdictions. One such
organization is SCOBA, the Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishops in
America, which is comprised of North American Orthodox bishops from all
jurisdictions.

There is a general acknowledgment that the situation should not continue as
it is indefinitely, and that at some point all the Orthodox churches in the
U.S. will need to be united under a single Metropolitan or Patriarch. There
is also a general acknowledgment that this can be taken care of slowly over
time. In June of 2002, the Antiochian Orthodox Church granted autonomy to
the Antiochian Archdiocese of North America. Some observers see this as a
step towards greater organizational unity in North America.

Theology

General flavor and phronema

In general, the Eastern Orthdox approach to scriptural interpretation and
theology is patristic. That means that every effort is made to continue
believing and practicing the same theology that Christ gave to the Apostles
and that the Apostles gave to the early Church Fathers. Theological
innovation is always met with suspicion; if an idea is truly different than
what the Church has always believed and taught, it is likely heretical.
Traditional theology can be elaborated and more fully explained, however.
The last major theological innovation took place in the 14th century at the
Hesychast Councils. There, St. Gregory Palamas explained how God can be both
utterly transcendent, yet make himself known to men.

Phronema refers to how something "smells" or "feels". The Western church
(i.e. Roman Catholicism and Protestantism) generally has a legal flavor to
much of its theology. Sin is understood primarily as a legal violation, and
salvation is legal forgiveness for the legal offenses. Also, the West tends
to first look at God in his unity, then in his three persons. The Eastern
church generally has a much more relational flavor. Sin leads to relational
separation from God, and repentance involves restoring the relationships
between the penitent and God, and between the penitent and humanity. God is
viewed first as three persons in perfect relationship with each other, then
as a unity sharing a single divine essence. The doctrine of the Trinity is
the basis for most if not all of Eastern Orthodox theology.

It should perhaps also be mentioned that the Western churches have been
especially influenced by Augustine and, to a lesser extent, Tertullian.
Although Augustine was an early church father, writing in the fourth
century, he had very little influence in the East. First of all, he wrote in
Latin rather than Greek. At the time, Latin was commonly spoken in the West,
but Greek was the main language of the Byzantine Empire. His writings
weren't translated to Greek until the fourteenth century. Consequently,
Western doctrines that are based on Augustine's views are typically not
shared by the East. Eastern theologians tended to rely more on Greek
philosophers than did the west, often borrowing their categories and
vocabulary to explain Christian doctrine. In the first few centuries after
the fall of Rome, knowledge of Greek in the West dropped considerably, and
so the Western church was generally less aware of the Greek philosophers.
These gradual differences contributed to the growing gap between the Eastern
and Western churches.

Asceticism and Theosis

Asceticism is the set of disciplines practiced to work out the believer's
salvation, and further the believer's repentance. Ultimately, it is
believed, salvation comes only by the grace of God, but God's grace and
right belief are expected to produce changes in behaviour. Changes in
behaviour can also influence beliefs. Asceticism can include anything from
taking part in prayers with the church, fasting, almsgiving, or even working
hard not to lose one's temper or similar acts of restraint and self-control.
Corporate prayers are generally prayed as a "liturgy", which literally means
a "work of the people." One prayer that is very widely used and is the
subject of much discussion of spirituality is the Jesus Prayer.

Theosis, or divinization, is the process of becoming more like God and more
united with God. It is the goal of the Christian life. It means becoming all
that people were originally created to be. It is not something to wait for
passively, but something to be taken by force, by hard work done in one's
soul.

The four chief activities of the believer are:

   * The Mystery of Repentance (or confession)
   * The Mystery of the Eucharist
   * Fasting
   * Almsgiving

Mystery of Repentance

In the earliest days of the Church, Christians confessed their sins to each
other publicly, and publicly forgave each other, announcing God's
forgiveness. This was possible in part because only believers were meeting
together, and they were close-knit communities in which everyone trusted
each other. As time went on, and more people came into the Church, some
people attending were seekers or catechumens rather than faithful members,
and believers began to feel uncomfortable confessing in public. Then the
practice developed of members quietly confessing to God (typically in front
of an icon of Christ blessing the icon's beholder) in the presence of an
elder or priest, who would offer counsel and confirm God's forgiveness. This
would take place in the context of a series of prayers said by the priest
and penitent together, often including Psalm 51 and other scriptures and
prayers. Repentance is essential preparation for receiving the Eucharist.

Mystery of the Eucharist

The Eucharist is at the center of Eastern Orthodoxy. In practice, it is
partaking of the bread and wine in the midst of the Divine Liturgy with the
rest of the church. The bread and wine are thought to be the genuine Body
and Blood of Jesus Christ. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described
exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic and
Protestant churches have in the West. The doctrine of transubstantiation was
formulated after the Great Schism took place, and the Eastern church has
never formally affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is
a mystery and sacrament. Believers are encouraged to partake regularly, and
once a year at the very least. One recent book describing the role of the
Eucharist in Eastern Orthodoxy is For the Life of the World by Fr. Alexander Schmemann.

Fasting

The practice of fasting is one of many Jewish practices the earliest
Christians kept, and which Orthodox Christians continue to keep to this day.
Fasting typically involves abstaining from most meat, dairy, wine, and oil
products, rather than abstaining from all food. Thus the fasting guidelines
resemble vegetarianism, and most vegetarian recipes are appropriate during
fasts. Monastaries typically have stricter fasting rules. The time and type
of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox Christians living within a
particular jurisdiction; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesial
calendar. In this way, the whole church fasts together, and the whole church
feasts together (when the fast is broken). Young children, women who are
pregnant or breastfeeding, and people with other medical needs are often
encouraged not to follow the usual fasting guidelines, but to work out
alternatives with their priest or spiritual elder. Also, if someone wishes
to follow a stricter fast, they are generally encouraged to do so only under
the guidance of their priest or spiritual elder.

The major fasting periods are Great Lent (40+ days leading up to Pascha
(Easter), the Feast of the Resurrection); Winter Lent (also known as
Philip's Fast or Nativity Fast, 40+ days leading up to Christmas or the
Feast of the Nativity); about 15 days leading up to the Feast of the
Dormition of the Theotokos (the falling asleep of the Virgin Mary) on August
15; the Apostle's Fast, leading up to the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul,
Prime Apostles; a few other shorter fasts; and on Wednesdays and Fridays
during most of the rest of the year. Wednesday fasts are in remembrance of
Judas Iscariot's betrayal of Jesus Christ and of the prostitute who anointed
Jesus with ointment, and Friday fasts are in remembrance of Christ's
crucifixion and death. There is also a complete fast (all food and drink)
from midnight Saturday night until after reception of the Holy Eucharist on
Sunday, and similar fasting before receiving the Eucharist on other days.
The exact number of fasting days often varies from year to year, as the
dates of various feasts change, but usually more than half of the days in a
year are spent in some form of fast. See the Eastern Orthodox section of the
liturgical year article.

Fasting without prayer was often called the "fast of demons" by the Church
fathers, since the demons neither eat nor pray. Therefore, fasting should
always be accompanied by prayer. Also, fasting is connected with almsgiving,
since avoiding meat is intended partly to free up money that can then be
used to feed the poor and provide for other charitable causes.

Almsgiving

"Almsgiving" refers to any charitable giving of material resources to those
in need. Like fasting, it is a practice carried over from Judaism and
reinforced by Christ, the authors of the New Testament, and has remained a
prominent teaching. It is often coupled with fasting (see above), as
consuming less food and less expensive food should free up more resources
that can be given. It is also connected to the Eucharist, in which thanks is
given for all things, and it is acknowledged that all things ultimately
belong to God. Almsgiving is one of the most practical Orthodox Christian practices.

(scattered notes to be fleshed out later, help welcome)

Martin Luther sent delegates to the Patriarch of Constantinople to explore
further relations with them, but the discussions went nowhere. Linguistic
difficulties were partly to blame.

In the sixteenth century, Pope Gregory I called for a switch to the
Gregorian calendar. However, like the Protestants of that time (and till the
mid eighteenth century in England), the Orthodox rejected this call, and so
remained on the Julian calendar. By far the majority of Orthodox worldwide
remain on the Julian Calendar. However, today, many Orthodox, particularly
in the West, have switched to a Revised Julian Calendar, which mostly
matches the Gregorian Calendar, but places Easter and related feast days
(e.g., Ascension, Pentecost) on the same day as does the Julian Calendar.
The actual algorithms for calculating the date of Easter used by both
calendars are quite complex, as are the algorithms for calculating the
Jewish date of Passover. See the external link concerning the calendar for
further details.

Eastern Orthodox churches

Autocephalous churches

   * Orthodox Church of Constantinople
   * Orthodox Church of Alexandria
   * Orthodox Church of Antioch
   * Orthodox Church of Jerusalem
   * Russian Orthodox Church
   * Serb Orthodox Church
   * Romanian Orthodox Church
   * Bulgarian Orthodox Church
   * Georgian Orthodox Church
   * Cypriot Orthodox Church
   * Church of Greece
   * Polish Orthodox Church
   * Albanian Orthodox Church
   * Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church
   * Orthodox Church in America

Autonomous Churches

   * Orthodox Church of Mount Sinai (under the Patriarch of Jerusalem)
   * Finnish Orthodox Church (under the Patriarch of Constantinople)
   * Estonian Orthodox Church (under the Patriarch of Constantinople)
   * Japanese Orthodox Church (under the Patriarch of Moscow)
   * Chinese Orthodox Church (under the Patriarch of Moscow)
   * Ukrainian Orthodox Church (under the Patriarch of Moscow)

Churches not in Communion with Constantinople

   * Belorussian Orthodox Church
   * Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece
   * Croatian Orthodox Church
   * Macedonian Orthodox Church
   * Montenegrin Orthodox Church
   * Old Believers
   * Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia
   * Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church